Indeed, stress leads to many problems. Stress experienced during the early years was found to be linked to withstanding changes in brain structures that moderate the response to stress (Bremner, 2003). More specifically, the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex are affected by damage to neurotransmitter systems including norepinephrine, benzodiazepine, opiate, and dopaminergic (Bremner, 2003). Alterations are believed to contribute to symptoms of PTSD and depression later in life among individuals who have experienced childhood abuse (Bremner, 2003).
Studies of animals show a greater incidence of abnormal hippocampus structure among those who experienced stress during the early years (Bremner et al., 2003). Functions of the hippocampus include learning and memory (Bremner et al., 2003). One study revealed that women who were diagnosed with PTSD and experienced childhood sexual abuse had 19% less hippocampal volume than women who had no abuse or PTSD (Bremner et al., 2003).
The hippocampus may not be the only area of the brain that is affected by abuse and trauma. Another response to stress is the release of glucocorticoids in the brain (Maxfield, n.d.). Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones (Wikipedia, 2006) that the brain uses to make energy readily available for fight or flight, increase heart rate, and to slow unneeded systems (Maxfield, n.d.). Severe damage is thought to occur to neurons when exposed over a long period of time to excess levels of glucocortocoids (Maxfield, n.d.).